Herbicides are a critical tool in agricultural management and environmental weed control, allowing for the efficient maintenance of crop fields and landscapes by inhibiting the growth of unwanted plants. These substances are classified in several ways, including their chemical structure, mode of action, and timing of application.
Chemical Structure: Herbicides can be grouped based on their chemical composition which often determines how they are synthesized and how they interact with plant biology. For instance, glyphosate, one of the most widely used herbicides globally, belongs to the glycine class. Others include triazines like atrazine, commonly used for broadleaf weed control in corn crops. Each chemical family affects weeds differently at the molecular level.
Mode of Action: This classification is pivotal as it describes how each herbicide affects plant processes to achieve weed control. Some herbicides are growth regulators which mimic plant hormones and disrupt normal plant growth patterns. Others might inhibit photosynthesis, while some interfere with the production of essential amino acids or disrupt cell division. Understanding the mode of action is crucial not only for effective application but also for managing resistance that weeds may develop over time.
Timing of Application: Herbicides are further categorized based on application timing relative to plant development: pre-emergent and post-emergent herbicides. Pre-emergent herbicides are applied before the weed seeds germinate and generally target weed seeds or young seedlings by forming a barrier that prevents cell growth. They are crucial in preventing the establishment of weed populations early in the season. Conversely, post-emergent herbicides are applied after weeds have emerged from the soil. These are designed to tackle visible weeds and often require direct contact or systemic absorption by the plant to be effective.
The strategic use of these classifications in selecting appropriate herbicide types can greatly enhance agricultural productivity by targeting specific weeds without harming crops or non-target species when used correctly. Additionally, understanding these categories helps in rotating different types of herbicides to prevent resistance buildup among local weed populations.
In conclusion, an integrated approach that considers chemical structure, mode of action, and appropriate timing can significantly contribute to sustainable agriculture practices and environmental management. By carefully choosing herbicides based on these classifications, farmers can maintain high yields while minimizing ecological disruption.
Herbicides are chemical agents used in agriculture and landscaping to control weeds that compete with crops or desirable plants for light, nutrients, and space. The effectiveness of these herbicides largely depends on their mechanism of action, which is the specific biochemical interaction through which they disrupt processes in plant cells leading to the death or inhibition of undesirable plants.
To understand how herbicides work at a cellular level, it's essential to recognize that different herbicides target different physiological processes within a weed. These processes generally include photosynthesis, amino acid synthesis, pigment formation, cell growth, and hormone pathways.
One common mechanism involves the disruption of photosynthesis. Herbicides like atrazine or glyphosate inhibit specific enzymes involved in this process. For instance, atrazine disrupts photosystem II by binding to its protein components, preventing the transfer of electrons needed to convert light energy into chemical energy. This leads to energy starvation in plants and eventually their death.
Another vital target of many herbicides is the enzyme system involved in the production of essential amino acids. Glyphosate is a well-known example that inhibits the EPSP synthase enzyme part of the shikimic acid pathway, which is crucial for synthesizing aromatic amino acids necessary for protein production and plant growth. Inhibited synthesis causes plant growth to cease and ultimately leads to death.
Herbicides can also interfere with pigment synthesis necessary for protecting against sunlight damage. By impeding these pigments' production, particularly chlorophyll, herbicides can cause photodestruction under normal sunlight which damages critical structures within the cell.
Some herbicides act as growth regulators; they mimic natural plant hormones such as auxins. 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is an example that causes uncontrolled and disorganized growth leading to deformities that interfere with normal plant development resulting in death.
The specificity of each type's action allows selective targeting of weeds without harming desired crops or plants significantly when applied correctly. However, resistance can develop through mutations or metabolic changes within weed populations over time making some herbicides less effective.
Understanding these mechanisms helps improve existing products' efficacy while guiding new product development resistant weed management strategies thereby ensuring sustainable agricultural practices and protection for non-target organisms from unnecessary exposure.
Understanding Application Techniques in Herbicide Use: A Key to Effective Weed Management
The use of herbicides has become a staple in modern agricultural practices and environmental management for controlling unwanted vegetation. However, their effectiveness is heavily dependent on the application techniques employed. Understanding these techniques not only maximizes the efficacy of herbicides but also minimizes potential environmental harm.
Spraying is perhaps the most common method used for applying herbicides. This technique involves dispersing the chemical solution over plants in the form of droplets. The success of spraying largely depends on several factors including the type of spray nozzle used, the size of droplets, the pressure at which the herbicide is sprayed, and environmental conditions such as wind and temperature.
To achieve optimal results, it's crucial that sprayers are calibrated correctly to ensure an even distribution of the herbicide across all targeted areas. Operators must be trained to select appropriate nozzles and adjust spray patterns accordingly, which helps in minimizing drift that could affect non-target species or areas.
Granular herbicides are another effective form employed particularly where precision is needed or when liquid applications might be impractical due to environmental concerns like wind or water runoff risks. These herbicides are applied in solid form and typically require moisture in the soil to activate.
This method is often favored around sensitive areas such as waterways since it reduces the chance of drift or leaching compared to sprays. The granules need to be evenly distributed over the target area, which can be achieved using handheld spreaders for small areas or more sophisticated equipment for larger fields. Calibration of equipment is essential to ensure even application and prevent excessive use of chemicals.
Soil incorporation refers to mixing the herbicide into the soil rather than applying it on surface vegetation or soil. This technique is particularly effective against weeds that germinate below the soil surface. Incorporation can be done mechanically using tillage equipment which mixes the herbicide into the soil at a desired depth.
This method ensures that the herbicide reaches deeper roots, making it highly effective but also poses higher risks if not done correctly as it can disturb existing plant life and soil ecosystems significantly. Moreover, careful consideration must be given to timing and weather conditions; too much rainfall after application can lead to leaching into unintended areas.
Each method has its own set of advantages and requires specific considerations regarding timing, environmental conditions, and technical settings for optimal performance. Spraying allows for broad coverage but needs careful handling to avoid off-target effects; granular applications provide precise control with reduced drift risk; while soil incorporation targets sub-surface weeds effectively but involves significant disturbance to soil structure.
Ultimately, choosing an appropriate application technique hinges on understanding weed challenges specific to each field or area, alongside adhering strictly to safety protocols designed to protect both applicators and environment from undue exposure risks.
By mastering these application techniques, those responsible for managing vegetation-be they farmers managing crops or conservationists caring for natural landscapes-can ensure that they use herbicides efficiently and responsibly.
Herbicides, commonly used to control unwanted vegetation in agricultural and non-agricultural settings, play a crucial role in modern agriculture. However, their use raises significant concerns regarding environmental impacts, particularly concerning non-target species, soil health, and water systems.
Firstly, the impact of herbicides on non-target species is a critical concern. These are organisms that herbicides are not intended to affect but nevertheless experience adverse effects due to exposure. For instance, herbicides designed to target specific weeds can also harm beneficial plants that provide habitat and food for wildlife. The decline of these plants can lead to reduced biodiversity within ecosystems. Moreover, insects such as bees and butterflies that rely on these plants for nectar may suffer from food shortages, leading to declines in pollinator populations which are vital for the pollination of many crops and wild plants.
Secondly, the effect of herbicides on soil health is profound. Herbicides can alter the microbial composition of the soil by killing or inhibiting certain microorganisms while allowing others to proliferate. This disruption can affect nutrient cycling and soil structure. Some herbicides have residual effects that last long after their application, further prolonging their impact on soil biology. The alteration in microbial activity can decrease the fertility of the soil over time, making it less productive for agricultural use.
Lastly, water systems are significantly impacted by herbicide usage through processes like runoff and leaching. When it rains or irrigation occurs, herbicides applied to fields can run off into nearby streams, rivers, and lakes or percolate through the soil into groundwater reserves. This contamination can lead to reduced water quality and affect aquatic organisms sensitive to chemical changes in their environment. For example, studies have shown that glyphosate—the active ingredient in many popular herbicides—can be toxic to aquatic life forms at certain concentrations.
The cumulative effect of these impacts poses serious questions about sustainable land management practices involving herbicide use. While they are effective tools for weed control, there's an increasingly pressing need for stricter regulations regarding their application rates and methods as well as more robust research into environmentally friendly alternatives such as bioherbicides or integrated pest management strategies.
In conclusion, while herbicides continue to be an integral part of modern agriculture providing clear benefits in managing weed growth efficiently; their broader environmental implications cannot be ignored. There is a compelling need for balancing agricultural productivity with ecological sustainability by adopting practices that minimize negative outcomes associated with herbicide use.
Resistance management is a critical aspect of modern agriculture that involves implementing strategies to prevent or mitigate the development of resistance in weed populations to herbicides. Herbicide resistance, where weeds no longer respond to chemicals designed to control them, poses a significant threat to food production and environmental conservation. To address this issue, it is essential for farmers and agricultural professionals to employ a multifaceted approach that includes the rotation of chemical herbicides and integrated weed management practices.
Herbicide rotation is one of the foundational strategies in resistance management. This practice involves alternating the use of herbicides with different modes of action over different growing seasons. By doing so, pressure on weed populations is diversified, reducing the likelihood that they will develop resistance to any single type of herbicide. For example, if a population begins to show signs of resistance to a glyphosate-based herbicide, switching to another class such as triazines or acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors can be effective in managing these resistant weeds.
However, relying solely on chemical solutions can lead to unsustainable farming practices and further environmental issues. Thus, integrated weed management (IWM) becomes crucial. IWM is a comprehensive approach that combines physical, biological, cultural, and chemical methods to manage weed populations effectively. Physical methods may include manual weeding or mechanical cultivation; biological methods could involve using natural predators or pathogens against weeds; cultural methods might consist of crop rotation or altering planting dates and densities.
For instance, cover cropping is an effective cultural practice within IWM. Cover crops are planted not for harvest but rather to cover the soil surface during times when primary crops are not grown. They compete with weeds for resources such as light and nutrients, thereby suppressing their growth. Additionally, certain cover crops can even release chemicals that inhibit weed seed germination and growth-a phenomenon known as allelopathy.
Moreover, precision agriculture technologies like GPS mapping and drone surveillance can enhance the effectiveness of IWM by providing detailed insights into where specific treatments are needed most. This targeted approach not only saves costs by reducing the amount of chemicals used but also minimizes environmental impact.
Education and awareness among farmers about the importance of resistance management are equally important. Extension services play a pivotal role in disseminating knowledge on how best to integrate various strategies into everyday farming operations. Workshops, field days, and demonstration plots can showcase successful practices from other regions or research findings pertinent to local conditions.
In conclusion, managing herbicide resistance requires an adaptive management strategy that integrates diverse approaches tailored to specific agricultural settings. By combining herbicide rotation with integrated weed management practices-and supporting these efforts through education-farmers can sustainably manage weed populations and mitigate the spread of resistance. This holistic view not only enhances crop productivity but also contributes toward long-term agricultural sustainability.
Regulatory and Safety Issues in the Use of Herbicides
Herbicides play a crucial role in modern agriculture and land management, providing an effective means to control unwanted vegetation that competes with crops, disrupts ecosystems, or poses a fire hazard. However, the chemicals present in herbicides can also pose significant risks to human health and the environment if not handled correctly. As such, strict regulations govern their use, and adherence to safety precautions is essential for minimizing potential dangers.
The regulation of herbicides varies by country but generally involves several common elements designed to ensure that these chemicals are used safely and effectively. In the United States, for instance, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for regulating herbicides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). This legislation mandates that all herbicides undergo rigorous evaluation and testing before they receive approval for use. The EPA assesses the potential environmental impact of herbicides as well as their toxicity to humans and wildlife.
Similarly, in the European Union, herbicides must comply with Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009, which ensures that substances used as plant protection products do not adversely affect human or animal health or the environment. This regulation also promotes the use of non-chemical alternatives wherever possible.
These regulatory frameworks help manage risks associated with herbicide use by enforcing stringent approval processes and continuous reevaluation of products as new scientific data becomes available. They also dictate clear labeling requirements so that users are fully informed about proper application methods and associated risks.
Beyond legal regulations, there are numerous safety precautions individuals must observe when handling and applying herbicides. The primary goal is to avoid direct contact with the chemicals, prevent contamination of non-target areas, and protect ecological systems.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Appropriate PPE is essential when handling herbicides. Depending on the product's toxicity level and form (liquid, granular), this might include gloves made from nitrile or neoprene rubber; goggles; face shields; respirators; long pants; long-sleeved shirts; and boots.
Proper Storage: Herbicides should be stored in a locked cabinet or facility inaccessible to unauthorized personnel or children. Containers should be tightly sealed to prevent leaks and spills.
Application Techniques: Correct application techniques are vital for safety and efficacy. Users should follow label instructions closely regarding dosage rates, methods of application (e.g., aerial vs ground spraying), timing (to avoid windy conditions that can lead to drift), and equipment calibration.
Environmental Considerations: To protect wildlife and aquatic systems from contamination by runoff or drift, it’s important to observe buffer zones around water bodies like lakes or rivers specified by guidelines or labels.
Emergency Procedures: Knowledge of emergency procedures in case of accidental exposure is critical. This includes having spill kits readily available and understanding first aid measures while ensuring quick access to medical services if needed.
Training: Regular training sessions can help individuals stay updated on best practices in herbicide use as well as changes in laws or product formulations.
By adhering strictly to both regulatory requirements and recommended safety practices, we can utilize herbicides effectively while protecting human health and preserving environmental integrity—ensuring sustainable agricultural practices that benefit present societies without compromising future generations.
As we step into the future, the agricultural landscape continues to evolve, bringing new challenges and opportunities in weed management. The use of herbicides, which has long been a cornerstone in agricultural practices, is undergoing significant transformation to meet the increasing demands for sustainability and efficiency. This evolution is not just a response to growing environmental concerns but also a necessary adaptation to the complexities of modern farming systems.
One of the most promising trends in herbicide use is the development of more targeted and sustainable formulations. These innovations are driven by advances in chemical research and an increased understanding of plant biology. Traditional herbicides often adopt a broad-spectrum approach, targeting a wide range of weed species but sometimes affecting non-target plants and causing undesirable environmental impacts. However, with newer technologies, scientists are able to design herbicides that are specific to certain weeds, reducing damage to crops and non-target vegetation.
The specificity of these new herbicides is achieved through molecular techniques that target unique enzymes or biological pathways present only in certain weed species. For example, scientists might develop a herbicide that inhibits an enzyme crucial for photosynthesis in a particular weed without affecting other plants. This precision not only enhances weed control efficacy but also minimizes ecological disruption.
Another significant advancement is the incorporation of environmentally friendly components into herbicide formulations. Biodegradable herbicides are gaining attention as they degrade into harmless substances after accomplishing their weed-control task. This feature drastically reduces the risk of pollution and soil degradation associated with long-lasting chemical residues.
Furthermore, integrated pest management (IPM) strategies are being refined to include these innovative herbicides as part of a broader approach that combines chemical methods with biological controls, crop rotations, and mechanical weeding techniques. This integrated approach not only helps in managing resistance among weed populations but also promotes biodiversity and ecological health.
In addition to chemical advancements, delivery mechanisms for herbicides are also witnessing innovation. Technologies such as drone-based application systems enable precise application over large areas while minimizing operator exposure and reducing drift to non-target areas. Such precision agriculture tools align well with the goals of reducing usage rates and enhancing delivery efficiency.
Regulatory bodies worldwide are also playing an influential role by tightening regulations around herbicide approvals and promoting labels that encourage responsible use patterns such as minimal dosage applications or combining chemicals with non-chemical methods.
In conclusion, the future trends in herbicide use show a shift towards more sophisticated chemical weed control solutions that focus on specificity, sustainability, and integration within wider pest management frameworks. These innovations promise not only enhanced effectiveness but also bolster efforts toward environmental stewardship in agriculture. As researchers continue to explore novel pathways for selective weed suppression without harming ecosystems or human health, it becomes increasingly clear that the future of herbicidal science lies in its ability to blend efficacy with ecological ethics.
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Arboriculture (/ˈɑːrbərɪˌkʌltʃər, ɑːrˈbɔːr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δένδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξύλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
cite book
cite journal
The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023, FAO, FAO.
The International Society of Arboriculture, commonly known as ISA, is an international non-profit organization headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia,[1] United States. The ISA serves the tree care industry as a paid membership association and a credentialing organization that promotes the professional practice of arboriculture.[2] ISA focuses on providing research, technology, and education opportunities for tree care professionals to develop their arboricultural expertise. ISA also works to educate the general public about the benefits of trees and the need for proper tree care.[3][4]
Worldwide, ISA has 22,000 members and 31,000 ISA-certified tree care professionals with 59 chapters, associate organizations, and professional affiliates throughout North America, Asia, Oceania, Europe, and South America.[5]
ISA offers the following credentials:
The Certified Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have a minimum of three years' full-time experience working in the professional tree care industry and who have passed an examination covering facets of arboriculture.[6][7] The Western Chapter of the ISA started the certification program in the 1980s,[citation needed] with the ISA initiating it in 1992.[8]
The Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA) or simply Master Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have attained the highest level of arboriculture offered by the ISA and one of the two top levels in the field. There are several paths to the Board Certified Master Arborist, but typically on average each has been an ISA Certified Arborist a minimum of three to five years before qualifying for the exam (this can vary depending upon other education and experience). The certification began as a result of the need to distinguish the top few arborists and allow others to identify those with superior credentials.
The Master Arborist examination is a far more extensive exam than the Certified Arborist Exam, and covers a broad scope of both aboriculture management, science and work practices. The exam includes the following areas:
Another credential that is on a par with the Master Arborist is that of the American Society of Consulting Arborists, the Registered Consulting Arborist.[9] There are perhaps six hundred individuals with that qualification, and only 70 arborists who hold both credentials.[citation needed]
Lithia Springs may refer to:
We recently had five large pine trees taken down in our front yard. We had three bids from different tree companies. We also wanted the stumps ground as well as chasing roots above ground. Rudy was fantastic and his workers were very skilled and the clean up was exceptional. We would highly recommend them and not hesitate to use them again.
Used Rudy and All In Tree for numerous things over the last year and a half. Pricing is Competitive. Very responsive to calls and tests. I like that they're insured. Did what he said what he was going to do and when he said he was going to do it. A couple of things didn't meet my expectations and he immediately came out and made it right. I have recommended to multiple other people.
Update! 10/10/23 After they helped me last month, All in Tree Service has again saved the day! A couple of large trees washed down the creek on my property recently and one of them was lodged against the pipes that go from my house to the street. There were other large tree trunks in the creek as well and also one wedged against the supports for my bridge. The All In team went to work and within a couple of hours had everything cleaned up and removed. The pipes and the bridge are safe! I recommend this team wholeheartedly. They care about what they do and it shows. Thank you! I’m very grateful. This team exemplifies professionalism. The before and after pictures tell a great story. September 2023 I recently was fortunate enough to find Rudy and Yaremi of All In Tree Services. A very large and very high limb on a big oak tree was hanging after a storm. It was a danger to me, to my dogs and to the fence below it. I had never met Rudy and Yaremi before. They were the first to call me back when I started my search for a reliable tree service. They clearly wanted the business so I gave them a chance. I’m so glad I did. They were very impressive! Their strategy and teamwork were incredible. Clearly they are very experienced at this kind of work. I took some pictures but I wish I had filmed the whole thing. It was amazing. They roped off the limb so it would not fall on anything or anyone. Then they quickly got the limb cut and safely on the ground and helped to clear up the debris. I am extremely happy with their service and with the friendly and professional manner with which they conducted themselves. I have already recommended them to my neighbors and I strongly encourage anyone who needs tree services to call them.
All professional service. Timely, efficient, friendly. I had big old dead trees that I feared daily were going to come down. I called them in an emergency and they came the very next morning, no problem, no excuses. The guys were about service and me as a customer. They saw what I needed and went above and beyond to make sure I was a satisfied customer. I am a satisfied customer. I will use this company again and again. Thank you Rudy.